List of space programs of the United States
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United States space program |
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The United States has developed many space programs since the beginning of the spaceflight era in the mid-20th century. The government runs space programs by three primary agencies: NASA for civil space; the United States Space Force for military space; and the National Reconnaissance Office for intelligence space. These entities have invested significant resources to advance technological approaches to meet objectives. In the late 1980s, commercial interests emerged in the space industry and have expanded dramatically, especially within the last 10 to 15 years.
NASA delivers the most visible elements of the U.S. space program. From crewed space exploration and the Apollo 11 landing on the Moon, to the Space Shuttle, International Space Station, Voyager, the Mars rovers, numerous space telescopes, and the Artemis program, NASA delivers on the civil space exploration mandate. NASA also cooperates with other U.S. civil agencies such as the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) to deliver space assets supporting the weather and civil remote sensing mandates of those organizations. In 2022, NASA's annual budget was approximately $24 billion.
The Department of Defense delivers the military space programs. In 2019, the U.S. Space Force started as the primary DoD agent for delivery of military space capability.[1] Systems such as the Global Positioning System, which is ubiquitous to users worldwide, was developed and is maintained by the DoD.[2] Missile warning, defense weather, military satellite communications, and space domain awareness also acquire significant annual investment. In 2023, the annual DoD budget request focused on space is $24.5 billion dollars.[3]
The Intelligence Community, through entities that include the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO), invests significant resources in space. Surveillance and reconnaissance are the primary focuses of these entities.
Commercial space activity in the United States was facilitated by the passage of the Commercial Space Launch Act in October 1984.[4][5] Commercial crewed program activity was spurred by the establishment of the $10 million Ansari X Prize in May 1996.
Definition of space flight
[edit]Space programs of the United States date to the start of the Space Age in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Programs involve both crewed systems and uncrewed satellites, probes and platforms to meet diverse program objectives.
From a definition perspective, the criteria for what constitutes spaceflight vary. In the United States, professional, military, and commercial astronauts who travel above an altitude of 50 miles (80 km) are awarded astronaut wings.[6] The Fédération Aéronautique Internationale defines spaceflight as any flight over 62 miles (100 km).[7] This article follows the US definition of spaceflight. Similarly, for uncrewed missions, systems are required to travel above the same altitude thresholds.
Government-led programs
[edit]The following summarizes the major space programs where the United States government plays a leadership role in managing program delivery.
Crewed government-led programs
[edit]Program | Purpose | Timeline | Organization(s) | Flights | Exemplar mission(s) | Refs |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
X-15 program | R&D | 1957–1968 |
|
13 | X-15 Flight 91 | [8][9] |
Project Mercury | R&D | 1958–1963 | NASA | 11 | Mercury-Atlas 6 | [10][11] |
Project Gemini | Exploration | 1961–1966 | NASA | 19 | Gemini 4 | [12] |
Project Apollo | Exploration | 1961–1972 | NASA | 14 | Apollo 11 | [13][14] |
Manned Orbiting Laboratory | Space Operations | 1962–1969 | US Air Force | 1 | Test Flight | [15] |
Space Shuttle program | Space Transportation | 1972–2011 | NASA | 134 | [16][17] | |
Skylab program | Space Operations | 1973–1974 | NASA | 4 | Skylab 2 | [18] |
Spacelab program | Space Operations | 1973–1998 | 16 | STS-50 | [19] | |
Apollo–Soyuz Test Project | Space Operations | 1975 | 1 | APAS-75 Docking System | [20] | |
International Space Station program | Space Operations | 1984–present | 26 years, 15 days in orbit | [21][22] | ||
Constellation program | Exploration | 2000s–2010 | NASA | 1 | Ares I-X | [23] |
Journey to Mars program | Exploration | 2010–2017 | NASA | 1 | Exploration Flight Test-1 | [24][25][26] |
Lunar Gateway program | Exploration | 2017–present | 0 | [27] | ||
Artemis Program | Exploration | 2017–present | 1 | [28][29][30] |
Uncrewed government-led programs
[edit]Program | Purpose | Timeline | Organization(s) | Flights | Exemplar mission(s) | Refs |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Viking sounding rocket | R&D | 1949–1957 | Naval Research Laboratory | 11 | Viking 11 (1954) | |
Project Vanguard | R&D | 1956–1959 | Naval Research Laboratory | 3 | Vanguard 1 | [33] |
Project Farside | R&D | 1957 | AFOSR | 6 | ||
Explorers Program | Exploration | 1958–present | 91 | [35][36] | ||
Pioneer program | Exploration | 1958–1992 |
|
8 | [37] | |
KH-1 to KH-6 Corona | Reconnaissance | 1959–1972 | 142 | Discoverer 1 | [38] | |
Samos | Reconnaissance | 1960–1962 | US Air Force | 7 | Samos 6 | [39] |
Television Infrared Observation Satellite | Weather | 1960–1968 | 10 | TIROS-8 | [40][41] | |
Transit | Navigation | 1960–1988 | 36 | Transit 3B | [42] | |
Ranger program | Exploration | 1961–1965 | NASA | 4 | Ranger 7 | [43][44] |
Strategic missile warning programs | Surveillance | 1960–present | US Space Force | 39 | [45][46] | |
Orbiting Solar Observatory | Heliophysics | 1962–1975 | NASA | 8 | OSO 3 | [47] |
Mariner program | Exploration | 1962–1973 | NASA | 7 | Mariner 6 and 7 | [48] |
Centaur upper stage program | Space Transportation | 1962–2003 |
|
91 | [49][50] | |
Environmental Research Satellite | Technology | 1962–1971 | US Air Force | 33 | ERS 5 | [51] |
Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) | Weather | 1962–present | 39 | [52] | ||
Lunar Orbiter program | Exploration | 1963–1967 | NASA | 5 | Lunar Orbiter 3 | [53] |
KH-7 Gambit | Reconnaissance | 1963–1967 | 38 | [54][55][56] | ||
Project Vela | Nuclear test detection | 1963–1970 | 12 | [57] | ||
Nimbus program | Weather | 1964–1978 | NASA | 6 | Nimbus 1 | [58] |
National Geodetic Satellite Program | Geodesy | 1964–1971 | NASA | 6 | [59] | |
Electronic & Geodetic Ranging Satellite (EGRS) | Navigation | 1964–1970 | 5 | EGRS 1 | [60] | |
Space Experiment Support Program | R&D | 1965–1971 | 6 | SOLRAD | [61] | |
Orbiting Vehicle | Technology | 1965–1971 | US Air Force | 37 | OV1-9 | [62] |
Lincoln Experimental Satellite | Communications | 1965–1976 | 8 | [63] | ||
Orbiting Astronomical Observatory (OAO) | Astronomy | 1966–1972 | 2 | Orbiting Astronomical Observatory 3 | [64] | |
KH-8 Gambit 3 | Reconnaissance | 1966–1984 | 54 | [65][66] | ||
Applications Technology Satellites |
|
1966–1979 | NASA | 6 | ATS-3 | [67] |
Defense Satellite Communications System | Communications | 1966–present | US Air Force | 63 | DSCS-III | [68][69][70] |
KH-9 Hexagon | Reconnaissance | 1971–1984 | 19 | [71] | ||
Space Test Program | R&D | 1971–present | 251 | C/NOFS | [72] | |
Landsat program | Earth Science | 1972–present | 9 | Landsat 9 | [73][74] | |
Earth and Ocean Dynamics Applications Program | Geodesy | 1972–1978 | NASA | 6 | [75] | |
NAVSTAR GPS | Navigation | 1973–present | US Air Force (1973–2019) US Space Force (2019 onward) |
77 | GPS Block III | [76][77] |
Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) | Weather | 1975–present | 18 | [78] | ||
Strategic planetary missions | Exploration | 1975–present | NASA | 8 | [79][80][81] | |
HEAO Program | Astrophysics | 1977–1979 | NASA | 3 | Einstein Observatory | [82] |
Polar Operational Environmental Satellites (POES) | Weather | 1978–present | 16 | [83][84] | ||
Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) | Communications | 1983–present | NASA | 14 | [85] | |
Milstar | Communications | 1985–present | US Air Force | 6 | [86] | |
UHF Follow-On program | Communications | 1988–present | US Navy | 11 | [87] | |
Medium Launch Vehicle II (MLV-II) | Space Transportation | 1988–2004 | US Air Force | 14 | [88] | |
Discovery program | Exploration | 1990–present | NASA | 12 | [89] | |
Great Observatories program | Astrophysics | 1990–present | NASA | 4 | [90][91] | |
Mars Exploration Program | Exploration | 1993–present | NASA | 8 | [92][93] | |
Global Geospace Science | Astrophysics | 1994–1996 | NASA | 2 | [94] | |
Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle | Space Transportation | 1998–present | US Air Force | 106 | [95][96] | |
New Millennium Program | Exploration | 1996–2017 | NASA | 5 | [97] | |
Earth System Science Pathfinder (ESSP) | Earth Science | 1996–present | NASA | 7 | [98] | |
Earth Observing System | Earth Science | 1999–present | NASA | 5 | [99][100] | |
Solar Terrestrial Probes program | Astrophysics | 2001–2003 | NASA | 4 | [101] | |
New Frontiers program | Exploration | 2003–present | NASA | 3 | [102] | |
Tactical Satellite Program | Technology | 2003–2013 | 3 | TacSat-2 | [103] | |
University Nanosatellite Program | Technology | 2004–present | Air Force Research Laboratory | 20 | Cornell University Satellite | [104] |
X-37B program | R&D | 2006–present |
|
6 | OTV-3 | [105][106] |
Lunar Precursor Robotic Program | Astrophysics | 2006–2013 | NASA | 3 | [107] | |
AEHF Satellite Program | Communications | 2010–present | US Space Force | 6 | AEHF-1 | [108][109] |
Living With a Star | Heliophysics | 2010–present | NASA | 4 | [110] | |
Wideband Global Satcom Program | Communications | 2011–present | US Space Force | 10 | WGS-4 | [111] |
Earth Systematic Missions (ESM) Program | Earth Science | 2017–present | NASA | 10 | [112] | |
Origins Program | Astrophysics | 2021–present | NASA | 3 | JWST | [113][114] |
Weather System Follow-on Program | Space weather | 2024–present | US Space Force | 1 | WSF-M1 | [115] |
Commercial space programs
[edit]The following summarizes the major space programs where private interests play the leadership role in managing program delivery.
Crewed commercial programs
[edit]Program | Purpose | Timeline | Organization(s) | Flights | Exemplar mission(s) | Refs |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Space Adventures | Space tourism | 1998–present | 7 | [116][117] | ||
SpaceShipOne | Space tourism | 2003–2004 | Scaled Composites | 3 | SpaceShipOne flight 16P | [118][119] |
SpaceShipTwo | Space tourism | 2010–present | Virgin Galactic | 10 | Virgin Galactic Unity 22 | [120][121] |
Blue Origin New Shepard | Space tourism | 2015–present | Blue Origin | 24 | Blue Origin NS-18 | [122][123] |
DearMoon lunar tourism | Space tourism | 2018–present | 0 | [124][125] | ||
Axiom Space | Space tourism | 2020–present | 3 | Axiom Mission 1 | [126] | |
Polaris program | Space tourism | 2021–present | 1 | Inspiration4 | [127][128] | |
Commercial Crew Program | Space transportation | 2011–present | 7 | [129][130] | ||
SpaceX Starship | Space Transportation | 2012–present | SpaceX | 0 | [131] | |
Orbital Reef Space Station | Space Operations | 2021–present | Blue Origin | 0 | [132] |
Uncrewed commercial programs
[edit]Program | Purpose | Timeline | Organization(s) | Flights | Exemplar mission(s) | Refs |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Telstar | Satellite communications | 1962–1995 | AT&T | 8 | Telstar 301 | [133] |
Comstar | Satellite communications | 1963–2000 | Comsat General Corporation | 4 | Comstar D-4 | [134] |
Westar | Satellite communications | 1975–1988 | Western Union | 7 | Westar 1 | [135] |
Satcom | Satellite communications | 1975–2001 | RCA Americom | 13 | GE-1 | [136] |
SBS | Satellite communications | 1975–1991 | Satellite Business Systems | 6 | SBS 2 | [137] |
Galaxy | Satellite communications | 1983–1997 | Hughes Communications | 9 | Galaxy 1 | [138] |
Commercial Launch Services (Atlas) | Space Transportation |
|
|
|
AC-69/Atlas I | [139][140] |
Iridium | Satellite communications | 1987–present | Iridium Communications | 170 | Iridium 77 | [141] |
Globalstar | Satellite communications | 1991–present | Globalstar | 84 | [142] | |
Digital Globe | Earth Imaging | 1992–present | Maxar Technologies | 8 | WorldView-1 | [143] |
Orbcomm | Satellite data messaging | 1992–present | Orbcomm | 62 | [144] | |
International Launch Services (Atlas, Proton) [note 1] | Space transportation | 1995–2006 |
|
100 | [145][146] | |
Sea Launch (Zenit) | Space transportation | 1995–2014 |
|
36 | [147] | |
DirecTV | Satellite Television | 1995–present | DirecTV | 19 | DirecTV T10 satellite | [148] |
Dish Network | Satellite Television | 1996–present | DISH Network Corporation | 16 | EchoStar X | [149] |
Sirius XM Radio | Satellite Radio | 1997–present |
|
13 | Sirius FM-5 | [150] |
SpaceX Launch Services | Space transportation | 2002–present | SpaceX | xx | [151] | |
Commercial Orbital Transportation Services | Space transportation | 2006–2013 | 3 | [152] | ||
United Launch Alliance Commercial Launch Services | Space Transportation | 2006–present | xx | [153] | ||
Commercial Resupply Services | Space transportation |
|
|
|
[154] | |
Planetscope satellite constellation | Earth imaging | 2010–present | Planet Labs | 487 | List of Flock satellite types | [155] |
Rocket Lab (Electron)[note 2] | Space Transportation | 2013–present | Rocket Lab | 41 | List of Electron launches | [156] |
Starlink | Satellite Internet Service | 2016–present | SpaceX | 5,330 | [157] | |
Commercial Lunar Payload Services | Space transportation | 2018–present | 1 | Astrobotic Peregrine Lander | [158] |
See also
[edit]- Space policy of the United States
- List of European Space Agency programmes and missions
- Japanese space program
- British space programme – Official efforts to develop space capabilities
- Chinese space program – Space program of the People's Republic of China
- Soviet space program – Space exploration program conducted by the Soviet Union from 1951 to 1991
- List of government space agencies
- List of rockets of the United States
- List of NOAA satellites
- List of NASA missions
Explanatory notes
[edit]- ^ Lockheed Martin sold its interest in ILS to Russian entities in 2006 with ILS continuing as an international entity. Atlas commercial sales reverted to Lockheed Martin via the United Launch Alliance joint venture with Boeing.
- ^ Rocketlab was founded in New Zealand but made the decision to re-domicile itself to the United States in 2013.
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